History: Láadan

Source of version: 5

Women-specific 'artlang', invented by Suzette Haden Elgin. Lojban's ((evidentials)) are inherited from it (although of course, Láadan in turn got them from Amerindian human languages.) What does it mean for a language to have a gender? - la ((kreig.daniyl.)) Check out [http://www.interlog.com/~kms/Laadan/,] and you tell me! :-) Another "test of the ((Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis))" language. ''It has words for womanly things. That doesn't make it womanly, just gender-neutral. English may be "male" in some way, but laadan strikes me as neither.'' Láadan is clearly feminine; see the pretty purple they used for the web page? It looks like a breast cancer site. ''But is the vocabulary purple also?'' (The vocabulary is indeed worth examining; it has specific terms for things like "discord in the home", "anger, for good and not futile reasons", "pain or loss which comes as a relief by virtue of ending the anticipation of its coming", "contentment despite negative circumstances", "the female sexual act", and "the act of relinquishing a cherished/ comforting/ familiar perception".) I despair of this ThreadMode discourse ever congealing into DocumentMode :-) , but the foundational assumption of Láadan is that women's perception of the word is fundamentally incommensurable with men's. So if purple meta-means what I think it meta-means, the answer is yes. ''Lojban got its evidentials from Láadan, but they are organized quite differently:'' || word | translation | Lojban equivalent Bíi | Indicates a declarative sentence (usually optional) | Báa | Indicates a question | Bó | Indicates a command; very rare, except to small children | Bóo | Indicates a request; this is the usual imperative/"command" form | Bé | Indicates a promise | Bée | Indicates a warning | || The grammatical tense particle. This occurs second in the sentence and marks it as either || word | translation | Lojban equivalent ril | present tense | eril | past tense | aril | future tense | wil | hypothetical | || The evidence particle – this occurs at the end of statements and indicates the trustworthiness of the statement. They are: || Láadan Evidence Act Morpheme | translation | Lojban equivalent wa | Known to speaker because perceived by speaker, externally or internally | za'a/se'o/ju'a wi | Known to speaker because self-evident | li'a we | Perceived by speaker in a dream | se'o wáa | Assumed true by speaker because speaker trusts source | .iati'e waá | Assumed false by speaker because speaker distrusts source; if evil intent by the source is also assumed, the form is "waálh" | .ianaiti'e wo | Imagined or invented by speaker, hypothetical | da'i/ru'a wóo | Used to indicate that the speaker states a total lack of knowledge as to the validity of the matter | waálh | | .ianaiti'e.iunaidai? (''There must be a better word for ((malicious intent)).'') wáo | | ju'ocu'i/pe'icu'i || ''This brings up an interesting question: What is the correct evidential in Lojban (assuming normal experiences) for a sentence like "mi xagji"? za'a? se'o?'' !Extract from a Wikipedia article {HTML()}<div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b>Láadan</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">constructed language</a> created by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzette_Haden_Elgin" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzette_Haden_Elgin" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Suzette Haden Elgin</a> in 1982 to test the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf_Hypothesis" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf_Hypothesis" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis</a>, specifically to determine if development of a language aimed at expressing the views of women would shape a culture; a subsidiary hypothesis was that Western<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">natural languages</a> may be better suited for expressing the views of men than women. The language was included in her <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">science fiction</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Tongue_(Suzette_Haden_Elgin_novel)" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Tongue_(Suzette_Haden_Elgin_novel)" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; "><i>Native Tongue</i></a> series. Láadan contains a number of words that are used to make unambiguous statements that include how one feels about what one is saying. According to Elgin, this is designed to counter <i>male-centered</i> language's limitations on women, who are forced to respond "I know I said that, but I meant this".</div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="4"></font></b></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><i><font size="5">Phonology</font></i><font size="5"><b><br> </b></font></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="4">Tones</font></b></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Unusually for constructed languages, Láadan is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">tonal language</a>. It utilises two distinct tones:</div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>lo</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lō/</span> or <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lò/</span>, a short, medium or low tone, represented by a single unmarked vowel</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>ló</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ló/</span>, a short, high tone, represented by a single marked vowel</li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">The word "Láadan" has three syllables: "lá-" with the short vowel /a/ plus high tone; "-a" with the short vowel /a/ and no tone; and "-dan".</div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Láadan does not allow any double [i.e., long] phonemes. Whenever two identical short vowels would occur side by side in a single morpheme, one of them has to be marked for high tone. When adding an affix would result in two identical vowels side by side, an epenthetic /h/ is inserted to prevent the forbidden sequence. The language will allow either "máa" or "maá," but not "maa". These combinations can be described as:</div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>loó</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lǒː/</span>, a long, low-rising tone, represented by a double vowel, the second of which is marked</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>lóo</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lôː/</span>, a long, high-falling tone, represented by a double vowel, the first of which is marked</li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">(Some people analyze these tone sequences as tonemic as well, for a total of four tones.)</div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Elgin prefers an analysis of the language as having no long vowels and a single tone, the high tone (distinguished from "neutral, baseline pitch"), but she acknowledges that linguists using other formalisms would be justified in saying that there are two tones, high and low (or unmarked or mid).<sup id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laadan#cite_note-0" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laadan#cite_note-0" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">[1</a>]</sup></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="4">Vowels</font></b></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Láadan has five <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">vowels</a>:</div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>a</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span>, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">open back unrounded vowel</a> (as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">English</a> <i>calm</i>),</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>e</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span>, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">open-mid front unrounded vowel</a> (as English <i>bell</i>),</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>i</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">near-close near-front unrounded vowel</a> (as English <i>bit</i>),</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>o</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">close-mid back rounded vowel</a> (as English <i>home</i>),</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>u</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">close back rounded vowel</a> (as English <i>boon</i>).</li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="4">Consonants</font></b></div> <table style="color: black; margin-left: 5px; border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; font-family: sans-serif; "> <tbody> <tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "> </p> </th> <th rowspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Labial</a></p> </th> <th colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Dental</a> /<br> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Alveolar</a></p> </th> <th rowspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Postalveolar</a><br> / <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Palatal</a></p> </th> <th rowspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Glottal</a></p> </th> </tr> <tr> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Central</a></p> </th> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lateral</a></p> </th> </tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_stop" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_stop" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Nasal</a></p> </th> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">m <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">n <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Plosive</a></p> </th> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">b <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">d <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Fricative</a></p> </th> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">voiceless</p> </th> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">th <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">lh <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɬ/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">sh <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">h <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr align="center"> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">voiced</p> </th> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">zh <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʒ/</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Rhotic</a></p> </th> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">r <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant_consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant_consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Approximant</a></p> </th> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">w <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">l <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">y <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Láadan lacks the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">consonants</a> <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p, t, k, ɡ, s/</span>. However, it uses <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>sh</i> (<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>), <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>y</i> (<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>), <i>h</i> with the same phonetic value as English. In addition to these, three <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">digraphs</a> require further explanation:</div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>th</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">voiceless dental fricative</a> (always as in English <i>think</i>, never as <i>then</i>),</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>zh</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʒ/</span>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">voiced postalveolar fricative</a> (as English <i>plea<b>s</b>ure</i>),</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><i>lh</i> – <span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɬ/</span>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">voiceless alveolar lateral fricative</a> (as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Welsh</a> <i>llan</i>).</li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="5">Grammar</font></b></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Most Láadan sentences contain three <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particle" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">particles</a>:</div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The <i>speech-act</i> particle – this occurs at the beginning of the sentence and marks it as either a statement (<i>bíi</i>), a question (<i>báa</i>), <i>et cetera</i>; in connected speech or writing, this particle is often omitted. They are: <dl style="margin-top: 0.2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; "><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Bíi </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Indicates a declarative sentence (usually optional)</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Báa </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Indicates a question</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Bó </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Indicates a command; very rare, except to small children</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Bóo </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Indicates a request; this is the usual imperative/"command" form</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Bé </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Indicates a promise</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Bée </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Indicates a warning</dd> </dl> </li></ul> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">grammatical tense</a> particle – this occurs second in the sentence and marks it as either <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tense" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tense" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">present tense</a> (<i>ril</i>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">past tense</a> (<i>eril</i>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_tense" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_tense" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">future tense</a> (<i>aril</i>) or hypothetical (<i>wil</i>); without the tense particle, the sentence is assumed to have the same tense as the previous sentence.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The <i>evidence</i> particle – this occurs at the end of statements and indicates the trustworthiness of the statement. They are: <dl style="margin-top: 0.2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; "><dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">wa </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Known to speaker because perceived by speaker, externally or internally</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">wi </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Known to speaker because self-evident</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">we </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Perceived by speaker in a dream</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">wáa </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Assumed true by speaker because speaker trusts source</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">waá </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Assumed false by speaker because speaker distrusts source; if evil intent by the source is also assumed, the form is "waálh"</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">wo </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Imagined or invented by speaker, hypothetical</dd> <dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">wóo </dt> <dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Used to indicate that the speaker states a total lack of knowledge as to the validity of the matter</dd> </dl> </li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Láadan is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">verb–subject–object</a> (VSO) language. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Verbs</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">adjectives</a> are interchangeable. There are no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(grammar)" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">articles</a>, and the object is marked by the <i>-th</i> or <i>-eth</i> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">suffix</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">plural</a> number is shown only by the <i>me-</i> prefix to the verb (<i>wo-</i> is used in some versions of the language). The particle <i>ra</i> following a verb makes it negative.</div> <table style="color: black; margin-left: 5px; border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; font-family: sans-serif; "> <caption>Some basic sentences in Láadan</caption> <tbody> <tr> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Láadan</p> </th> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">literal translation</p> </th> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">idiomatic translation</p> </th> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">bíi ril áya mahina wa</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>statement</i> <i>present-tense</i> beautiful/beautify flower <i>observed-truth</i></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The flower is beautiful</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">báa eril mesháad with</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>question</i> <i>past-tense</i> <i>plural</i>-go/come woman</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Did the women go/come?</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">bíi ril lámála with ruleth wa</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>statement</i> <i>present-tense</i> stroke/caress woman cat-<i>object</i> <i>observed-truth</i></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The woman strokes the cat</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">bóo wil di le neth</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>request</i> <i>hypothetical</i> speak/say I you-<i>object</i></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">I would like to speak with you, please.</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">bíi aril meleyan ra lanemid wáa</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>statement</i> <i>future-tense</i> <i>plural-</i>be-brown <i>negative</i> dog <i>received-truth</i></p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">I hear the dogs will not be brown</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="4">Morphology</font></b></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">Láadan has an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinative_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinative_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">agglutinative</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">morphology</a>, and uses a number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affix" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">affixes</a> to indicate various feelings and moods that many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">natural languages</a> can only indicate by tone of voice, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">body language</a> or circumlocution.</div> <table style="color: black; margin-left: 5px; border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; font-family: sans-serif; "> <tbody> <tr> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Affix</p> </th> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">meaning</p> </th> <th style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">example</p> </th> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">(-)lh(-)</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">disgust or dislike</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>hahodimi</i>: "pleasantly bewildered"; <i>hahodimilh</i>: "unpleasantly bewildered"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">du-</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">to try to</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>bíi eril dusháad le wa</i>: "I tried to come"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">dúu-</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">to try in vain to</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>bíi eril dúusháad le wa</i>: "I tried in vain to come"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">ná-</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">progressive aspect</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>bíi eril dúunásháad le wa</i>: "I was trying in vain to come"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">-(e)tha</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">natural possessor</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>lalal betha</i>: "her mother's milk"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">-(e)tho</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">customary or legal possessor</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>ebahid letho</i>: "my husband"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">-(e)thi</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">possessor by chance</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>losh nethi</i>: "your money (gambling winnings)"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">-(e)the</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">possessor by unknown provenance</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>ana worulethe</i>: "the cats' food"</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">-id</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">denotes male (otherwise female or gender neutral)</p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><i>thul</i>: "mother/parent"; <i>thulid</i>: "father"</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; ">The <i>speech act</i> particle, at the beginning of a sentence, can also carry several suffixes, which expand on the overall state of the sentence. For example, <i>bíi</i> begins a statement, but <i>bíide</i>begins a statement that is part of a narrative; <i>bóoth</i> begins a request made in pain; <i>báada</i> begins a question that is meant in jest.</div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="4">Pronouns</font></b></div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronoun" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronoun" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Pronouns</a> in Láadan are built up from a number of constituent parts. The consonant <i>l</i> marks the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_person" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">first person</a>, <i>n</i> the second person and <i>b</i> the third person. Usually, these are followed by the vowel <i>e</i>. However, the vowel <i>a</i> is used to designate someone who is loved (<i>lhe-</i> is prefixed to describe someone who is despised). The suffix <i>-zh</i> is used to mark a plural pronoun for numbers up to four, and <i>-n</i> for numbers beyond that. Therefore, <i>lazh</i> means "we, several beloved", and <i>lheben</i> means "they, many despised".</div> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="5">See also</font></b></div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role_in_language" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role_in_language" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Gender role in language</a></li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="5">References</font></b></div> <ol style="line-height: 19px; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3.2em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: none; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laadan#cite_ref-0" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laadan#cite_ref-0" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">^</a></b> <a href="http://ozarque.livejournal.com/253528.html?thread=4544600#t4544600" _fcksavedurl="http://ozarque.livejournal.com/253528.html?thread=4544600#t4544600" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Elgin's blog</a></li> </ol> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="5">Further reading</font></b></div> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Elgin, Suzette Haden, &amp; Diane Martin. <i>A First Dictionary and Grammar of Láadan</i>. Madison: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WisCon" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WisCon" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Society for the Furtherance and Study of Fantasy and Science Fiction</a>, 1988.</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Jones, Mari C. and Ishtla Singh, <i>Exploring Language Change</i>: Routledge, 2005; pp. 169–182.</li></ul> <div style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><b><font size="5">External links</font></b></div> <table style="color: black; margin-left: 5px; border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; font-family: sans-serif; "> <tbody> <tr> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; "><br> </p> </td> <td style="border-top-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-right-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-bottom-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-left-color: rgb(211, 211, 211); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: dotted; border-right-style: dotted; border-bottom-style: dotted; border-left-style: dotted; border-image: initial; "> <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 5px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Look up <i><b><a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:L%C3%A1adan" _fcksavedurl="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:L%C3%A1adan" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Appendix:Láadan</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <ul style="line-height: 19px; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.5em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(http://127.0.0.1/w/extensions/FCKeditor/css/bullet.gif); color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: sans-serif; text-align: -webkit-auto; "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.laadanlanguage.org/pages/" _fcksavedurl="http://www.laadanlanguage.org/pages/" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Official Láadan website</a></li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.langmaker.com/db/L%C3%A1adan" _fcksavedurl="http://www.langmaker.com/db/L%C3%A1adan" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Láadan Conlang Profile</a></li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.sfwa.org/members/elgin/Laadan.html" _fcksavedurl="http://www.sfwa.org/members/elgin/Laadan.html" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Elgin's Láadan introduction</a></li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://home.comcast.net/~amjbarnhart/" _fcksavedurl="http://home.comcast.net/~amjbarnhart/" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Láadan lessons</a> (moderately paced lessons in Láadan)</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.sfwa.org/members/elgin/LanguageImperative/laadansampler.html" _fcksavedurl="http://www.sfwa.org/members/elgin/LanguageImperative/laadansampler.html" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">A Láadan Sampler</a></li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/306a_web/Laadan.pdf" _fcksavedurl="http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/306a_web/Laadan.pdf" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Some Láadan (PDF)</a> (The text says that "wo-" is a plural marker. This is an error; the plural marker is "me-", "wo-" is a relativizer.)</li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.sfwa.org/members/elgin/LaadanLessons/Laadan01.html" _fcksavedurl="http://www.sfwa.org/members/elgin/LaadanLessons/Laadan01.html" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Lesson One of Láadan Made Easier</a></li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://wiki.feministsf.net/index.php?title=L%C3%A1adan_Working_Group" _fcksavedurl="http://wiki.feministsf.net/index.php?title=L%C3%A1adan_Working_Group" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">Láadan Working Group</a></li> <li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-laadan/en/ldn/" _fcksavedurl="http://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-laadan/en/ldn/" style="color: rgb(0, 43, 184) !important; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; ">How to count in Láadan</a></li></ul> {HTML}

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